Presidency of John Adams

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The John Adams presidency , began on March 4, 1797, when John Adams was inaugurated as the second President of the United States, and ended on March 4, 1801. Adams, who had served as vice president under George Washington, president after winning the presidential election in 1796. The only member of the Federalist Party who served as president, his presidency ended after a period after his defeat in the presidential election in 1800. He was replaced by Thomas Jefferson of the Democratic Party-Republic.

When Adams entered the office, the ongoing war between France and Great Britain caused great difficulty for American merchants on the high seas and aroused intense alignment amongst national political factions. Attempts to negotiate with France led to the XYZ Event, where French officials demanded bribes before they agreed at the start of the negotiations. The XYZ Affair angered the American public, and the United States and France were involved in an unnamed naval conflict known as Quasi-War, which dominated the rest of Adams's presidency. Adams led the expansion of the army and navy, and the navy won some successes in the Quasi-War.

The increased spending associated with these actions required greater federal income, and Congress passed the 1798 Direct Taxes. The related wars and taxes sparked domestic unrest, resulting in incidents such as the Fries Rebellion. In response to the riots, both foreign and domestic, the 5th Congress passed four bills, collectively known as Alien and Sedition Acts. Signed into law by the president, this action makes it more difficult for immigrants to become US citizens, allowing the president to imprison and deport non-citizens considered harmful or who are from hostile states, and criminalized to make false statements criticizing the government federal. The majority of the Federalists argue that the bill strengthens national security during times of conflict, while the Democratic Party-Republicans strongly condemn the law.

The opposition to Quasi-War and Alien and the Sedition Acts, as well as the inter-party rivalry between Adams and Alexander Hamilton all contributed to Adams's loss to Jefferson in the election of 1800. Historians have difficulty assessing the Adams presidency. Samuel Eliot Morison has written that "he with temperament is not suited to the presidency, he does know more than any other American, even James Madison, about political science, but as an administrator he is not calm." Nevertheless, Adams was able to avoid a war with France, arguing that war should be the last resort to diplomacy. In this argument, he won this nation from the respect of his most powerful enemies. Although Adams is heavily criticized for signing Alien and Sedition Acts, he has never advocated their part or personally implements it, and he forgives the protesters of the Fries Rebellion. "Visible in this light," observed the historian C. James Taylor, "Adams's legacy is one of the reasons, moral, rule of law, compassion, and a cautious but active foreign policy aimed at securing national interests and achieving peace honorable. "

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Pemilihan 1796

The election of 1796 was the first contested American presidential election. George Washington has been elected to take office unanimously in the first two presidential elections; However, during his presidency, profound philosophical differences were manifested between two central figures in government - Alexander Hamilton and Thomas Jefferson. Their competing views on domestic and foreign policy led to a rift within the government, and led to the founding of the Federalist Party and the Democratic-Republican Party. So when Washington announced that he would not be a candidate for a third term, an intense partisan struggle developed during the presidency began.

Like the two previous presidential elections, no candidates were directly presented to voters in 1796. The Constitution on the contrary stipulates that each state elects a presidential vote, and voting of presidential voters elects the president. When the election took place before the 12th Amendment ratification, each presidential voter gave two votes to the president, although voters were not allowed to vote for the same person. The Constitution stipulates that the people who receive the most votes will be president, provided they win votes from the majority of voters, while the second most voted person will be vice-president. Voters choose presidential voters in seven states. In the remaining nine countries, they are elected by the state legislature.

Vice-President John Adams and Hamilton both hoped to lead the Federalist Party, but Vice President Adams was widely seen as the "heir" of Washington, and he consolidated support among his party's voters. What is clear is the Democratic Republican favorite is Thomas Jefferson, although he is reluctant to run. The Democratic-Republican Party in Congress held a nomination caucus and named Jefferson and Aaron Burr as their presidential choice. Jefferson initially rejected the nomination, but he eventually agreed to run a few weeks later. Members of the Federalist Congress held an informal nomination caucus and named Adams and Thomas Pinckney as their presidential candidates. The campaign was, for the most part, disorganized and sporadic, limited to newspaper attacks, pamphlets, and political parades. The Federalists attacked Jefferson as Francophile and an atheist, while Democrats accused Adams of being an Anglophile and a monarchist.

In early November, French ambassador to the United States, Pierre Adet, put himself into a political debate on behalf of Jefferson, published a statement designed to stir up anti-British sentiment and left the impression that Jefferson's victory would result in improved ties with France.. Meanwhile, Hamilton, who wanted a "more flexible president than Adams," maneuvered to lead the election to Pinckney. He forced Federal Federal Federal supporters, pledged to vote for Pinckney's "favorite son", to spread their second voice among candidates other than Adams. Hamilton's scheme was canceled, however, when several New England state voters heard it, negotiated, and agreed not to vote for Pinckney.

The votes of 138 Electoral College members were counted during the joint session of Congress on 8 February 1797; the top three voters are: Adams 71 votes, Jefferson 69, and Pinckney 59. Sound balance is spread between Burr and nine other candidates. Almost all of Adams's votes are from Northern voters, and almost all of Jefferson's voices are from Southern voters. As President of the Senate, he fell to Adams to announce himself as the elected president and his principal opponent, Jefferson, as elected vice-president. A week later he delivered an emotional farewell speech to a body whose musyawarah he led for eight years. The American two-party system came ahead of the 1796 election - the only election to date in which a president and vice president are elected from opposition parties. The rivalry between New England and the South, with countries holding the balance of power, began sprouting at this very moment.

Maps Presidency of John Adams

Inauguration

Adams was inaugurated as president of both countries on March 4, 1797 at the House of Representatives Chamber of Congress Hall in Philadelphia. Supreme Court Justice Oliver Ellsworth administered the oath of office, making Adams the first president to receive oath from a Supreme Court justice.

Adams began his inaugural speech (full text) with a review of the struggle for independence,

When first felt, in the early days, that there was no middle ground for America to remain between indefinite surrender to the foreign legislature and the total independence of its claims, reflection people were less worried about the dangers of fleet forces and their powerful army had to decide to refusing rather than from contests and disputes that would of course arise about the forms of government that would be institutionalized over the whole and over parts of this vast country. Relying, however, on the purity of their intentions, the justice of their cause, and the integrity and intelligence of the people, under the overly powerful government that has symbolically protected the country from the first, the representative of this nation, which then consists of no more than half the number now, not only broken into pieces of forged chains and raised iron rods, but blatantly cut the ties that bound them, and slid into the sea of â€‹â€‹uncertainty.

2,208 speeches included the favorable respect for George Washington, the call for political unity, and the promise to support the development of learning institutions. Adams also stated his desire to avoid the war and, for the disappointment of some of his Federalist allies, praised the French.

By the time he entered the office, the country's population reached about five million people, with two-thirds of those living within a hundred miles of the East Coast of the United States. The largest population growth, however, occurred in the western region of the Appalachian Mountains. At the end of his term, 500,000 people, mainly from New England, Virginia and Maryland, have migrated west to Kentucky, Tennessee, and the Northwest Territories.

The 1796 election saw opponents john adams and thomas jefferson ...

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Administration

Cabinet

Apart from the appointment process, the Constitution only includes passing references to the operations of the executive branch institutions. The term "cabinet" began to be applied to the head of the executive branch department at the end of the first period of Washington, and Washington relied on his cabinet as advisory council. The Constitution stipulates that the persons appointed to lead these institutions should be accountable to the president, silent in the cessation of the appointment of the cabinet. When Adams became president, there was no precedent over the continued service of the previous high-ranking president. Rather than taking advantage of the opportunity to use patronage to build a loyal advisory group, Adams maintains the Washington cabinet, though no member has ever been close to him.

Three cabinet members, Timothy Pickering, James McHenry, and Oliver Wolcott Jr., were devoted to Hamilton and referred to every major policy question to him in New York. These cabinet members, in turn, presented Hamilton's recommendations to the president, and often actively worked against Adams's proposals. "The Hamilton people who surrounded him," Jefferson wrote in a May 1797 letter, "is just a little less hostile than me." Another legacy of the Washington administration, Attorney General Charles Lee, worked well with Adams and remained in the cabinet during Adams presidency. In 1798, Benjamin Stoddert of Maryland became the first secretary of the navy, and Stoddert emerged as one of Adams's most important advisers. As the split grew between Adams and the Hamiltonian wing of the Federalists during the second half of Adams's term, the president relied less on Pickering's suggestion, McHenry, and Wolcott. After understanding the scope of Hamilton's behind-the-scenes manipulation, Adams fired Pickering and McHenry in 1800, replacing them with John Marshall and Samuel Dexter, respectively.

Vice presidency

Adams and Jefferson started friendlyly; they had become friends 20 years earlier, while serving together at the Second Continental Congress. On the night of their inauguration, they met briefly to discuss the possibility of sending Jefferson to France as part of a three-member delegation to calm an increasingly turbulent relationship between the two countries. When they concluded that this would be an inappropriate role for the vice president, they agreed to replace Jefferson's political ally James Madison. Shortly after the inauguration, Jefferson informed Adams that Madison was not interested in a diplomatic mission to France. Adams replied that, however, he would not be able to choose Madison because of the pressure from within his cabinet to appoint a Federalist. It was the last time Adams consulted with Jefferson about the issue of national significance. For his part, the vice president turned exclusively to his political role as leader of the Democratic Republic and to his government duties as chairman of the Senate.

John Quincy Adams Gravesite - Quincy, Massachusetts

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Legal promise

Adams has the opportunity to fill three Supreme Court vacancies during his tenure. In December 1798, the Senate confirmed the nomination of Adams Bushrod Washington, the nephew of former president of Washington, to replace Judge James Wilson. One year later, Alfred Moore succeeded Judge James Iredell. Then, in January 1801, Adams was named John Marshall as Supreme Court Justice of the Supreme Court, replacing Oliver Ellsworth, who had retired due to illness. Adams originally nominated former Judge John Jay, but Jay refused to return to his original position. Marshall, who served as Secretary of State at the time, was quickly confirmed by the Senate, and took office on February 4. He continues to serve as Secretary of State until the term of the Adams sentence ends on March 4.

John Adams Gravesite - Quincy, Massachusetts

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International relations

Relationship with France

XYZ Affair

The term Adams is characterized by disagreements over the country's role, if any, in the widespread conflict in Europe, where Britain and France are at war. Hamilton and the Federalists supported England, while Jefferson and the Democratic Party-Republic liked France. The intense battle over the Treaty of Jay in 1795 had previously polarized politics throughout the nation and alienated France. The Jay Treaty has resolved several major US complaints against Britain, including the ongoing British impression of American sailors, but Washington sees the treaty as the best method to avoid another war with Britain. The French were angered by the Jay Treaty and began to seize the American merchant ship that traded with Britain. In the 1796 elections, the French supported Jefferson to become president, and they became increasingly angry over his loss. However, when Adams took office, pro-French sentiment in the United States remained strong due to French aid during the Revolutionary War.

Adams hopes to maintain friendly relations with France, and he sends delegates to Paris, consisting of John Marshall, Charles Cotesworth Pinckney and Elbridge Gerry, to seek compensation for the French attack on American voyages. When the messenger arrived in October 1797, they continued to wait for several days, and were finally given a 15-minute meeting with French Foreign Minister Talleyrand. After this, the diplomats met with three Talleyrand agents. Each refused to engage in diplomatic negotiations unless the United States paid a large bribe, one to Talleyrand in person, and one to the French Republic. Americans refuse to negotiate on such terms. Marshall and Pinckney returned home, while Gerry remained.

In an April 1798 speech to Congress, Adams publicly expressed Talleyrand's intrigue, sparking public outrage in France. Democrats-Republicans are skeptical of the administration's report on what is known as the "XYZ affair." Many of Jefferson's supporters will weaken and oppose Adams' efforts to defend himself against France. Their main fear is that a war with France will lead to an alliance with Britain, which in turn could allow allegedly monarchic Adams to continue its domestic agenda. For their part, many Federalists, especially the conservative "ultra-Federalists", were very afraid of the radical influence of the French Revolution. The economy also pushed the split between the Federalists and Democrats, because the Federalists sought financial ties with Britain, while many Democrats feared the influence of British creditors.

Quasi-War

The president has not seen any advantage in joining the British-led alliance against France. He therefore pursued a strategy whereby American ships harassed French ships in a sufficient effort to stem the French attack against American interests, initiating a declared naval war known as Quasi-War. Given the threat of an invasion from the more powerful French forces, Adams asked Congress to endorse the enormous expansion of the navy and the formation of twenty-five thousand human soldiers. Congress authorized ten thousand human soldiers and a moderate expansion of the navy, which at that time consisted of a special unarmed ship. Washington was assigned as senior army officer, and Adams reluctantly agreed to Washington's request that Hamilton be the second military commander. It became clear that Hamilton was really responsible for Washington's next years. The angry president commented at the time, "The Hamilton I know to be a proud, proud, and aspiring Spiritual, Mortal always pretends to be Morality," he writes, but "with immoral moral like the old Franklin who more of a model than anyone I know. "Due to his support for the expansion of the navy and the establishment of the US Department of the Navy, Adams" is often referred to as the father of the US Navy. "

Led by the Secretary of the Navy Benjamin Stoddert, the navy won some successes in the Quasi-War, including the capture of L'Insurgente, a powerful French warship. The navy also opened trade links with Saint-Domingue (now known as Haiti), a French colony that revolts in the Caribbean Sea. On the opposition of many in his own party, Adams refused the escalation of war. The president's continued support for Elbridge Gerry, a Democrat-Republican who Adams was sent to France at the beginning of his term and who continues to seek peace with France, especially many frustrated Federalists. Hamilton's influence on the War Department also widened the rift between Federalist Adams and Hamilton supporters. At the same time, the formation of a large army that stood raises a popular alarm and plays in the hands of Democrats-Republicans.

In February 1799, Adams surprised many by announcing that he would send a diplomat William Vans Murray on a peace mission to France. Adams delayed sending delegates while he waited for the construction of several US warships, which he hoped would change the balance of power in the Caribbean. Much to the dismay of Hamilton and other Federal-Federal, the delegation finally departed in November 1799. The president's decision to send a second delegation to France sparked a bitter split in the Federalist Party, and some Federalist leaders began looking for alternatives to Adams in the 1800 presidential election. peace between the US and France was supported by Napoleon's ascent in November 1799, when Napoleon regarded Quasi-War as a distraction from the ongoing war in Europe. In the spring of 1800, delegates sent by Adams began negotiations with the French delegation, led by Joseph Bonaparte.

The war ended in September when the two sides signed the 1800 Convention, but France refused to recognize the release of the 1778 Alliance Treaty, which had created a French-American alliance. The United States got little of a settlement other than a suspension of hostilities with France, but the timing of the treaty proved favorable to the United States, as France would get a temporary suspension of war with the British in the 1802 Amiens Agreement. The news of the signing of the convention did not arrive in the United States until after the election. Overcoming the opposition of some Federalists, Adams was able to win the ratification of the Senate convention in February 1801. After finishing the war, Adams mobilized the emergency troops.

Relationship with Spanish

The US and Spain signed the San Lorenzo Agreement in 1795, setting the border with the territory of Spain, Louisiana. But with the war between France and the United States looming, Spain is slow to implement the terms of the treaty, which includes the Spanish chassis of the Yazoo land and the Spanish fortress disarmament along the Mississippi River. Not long after Adams took office, Senator William Blount's plan to push Spain out of Louisiana and Florida became public, causing a setback in relations between the US and Spain. Francisco de Miranda, a Venezuelan patriot, also sought to raise support for American intervention against Spain, possibly with the help of the British. Rejecting Hamilton's ambitions for Spanish territorial seizure, Adams refused to meet Miranda, squeezing the plan. After avoiding war with France and Spain, the Adams administration oversaw the implementation of the San Lorenzo Agreement.

domestic affairs

Move to Washington DC

In 1790, the Congress, through the Residence Act, had established the location of a permanent national capital along the Potomac River. December 1800 was set as the deadline for the completion of government buildings in the new capital. The newborn city is named after President Washington, and the surrounding federal district of Columbia, which is a poetic name for the United States commonly used at the time. The law also moved the provisional capital from New York City to Philadelphia in 1791.

Congress postponed its last meeting in Philadelphia on May 15, 1800, and the city officially ceased to be the seat of state government on June 11. In June 1800, Adams made his first official visit to Washington; In the midst of a "raw and unfinished" urban landscape, the president finds public buildings "in a much larger than expected solution." The northern wing (Senate) on the Capitol is almost complete, like the White House. The president moved to the White House on November 1, and First Lady Abigail Adams arrived a few weeks later. Upon arriving there, Adams wrote to him, "Before I end my letter, I pray Heaven to give the best of the Blessings in this House and all who will inhabit it later.Please no one but the honest man" and wise ever reign under this roof. "

The 6th Congress of the Congress met for the first time at the Capitol building on November 17, 1800. On November 22, Adams delivered his 4th State Address to a joint session of Congress in the Senate Chamber. He began his speech by congratulating members at the center of their new government and - sharply - "on the prospect of residence will not be changed." He adds, optimistically, "While there are several reasons to understand that accommodation is not as complete as might be expected, there are good reasons to believe that this inconvenience will end with this session." This will be the last annual message each president will personally give to Congress for the next 113 years. The following February, Congress approved the District of Columbia Organic Act of 1801, which officially regulates the District of Columbia. In accordance with the Constitution, Congress becomes the authority of the district government.

Alien and Tempting Acting

The US is becoming increasingly polarized by Quasi-War, and Adams faces bitter attacks on the media. Many recent immigrants, including those from Ireland, look favorably at France and oppose England. An Irish-American congressman, Matthew Lyon, was involved in a boxing fight with a Federalist Congressman. In an attempt to extinguish the threat of subversion among hostile immigrants, the Federalist issued a series of laws, "Alien and Sedition Acts" in 1798. Historians argue about Adams's involvement outside his signature; he denied in his memoirs that he had sought action, but his complaints about a "slanderous" attack on his presidency may play a role in the passage of the law.

The Alien and Sedition Acts consists of four steps - Naturalization Act, Alien Friends Act, Alien Enemies Act, and the Sedition Act. The law is designed to reduce the threat of separatism by banning the most extreme. The Naturalization Act increases to 14 years of residence period required for an immigrant to achieve American citizenship, in part because naturalized citizens tend to vote for the Democratic-Republican Party. The Alien Friends Act and the Alien Enemies Act allow the president to deport foreigners whom he deems harmful to the state. The Sedition Act makes a crime to publish "fake, embarrassing, and dangerous writings" against the government or its officials. Penalties include 2-5 years in prison and a fine of up to $ 5,000.

The action became controversial because of the prosecution of a congressman and a number of newspaper editors. The Federalist Administration started fourteen or more indictments under the law of sedition, as well as a lawsuit against five of the six most prominent Democratic-Republican newspapers. The majority of legal actions began in 1798 and 1799, and went to court on the eve of the 1800 presidential elections that barely appeared by chance, according to Ferling's biography. Other historians have cited evidence that Alien and Sedition Acts are rarely enforced: only 10 beliefs under the acts of sedition have been identified; Adams never signed a deportation order; and the sources of anger expressed for those acts are the Democratic-Republican Party. However, other historians have stressed that the act was employed for political targeting early on, causing many foreigners to leave the country. They are also allowed to prosecute many people who oppose Federalists, even on the floor of Congress.

Rejecting the constitutionality of the action, Jefferson and Madison secretly wrote Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions, in which the governments of Kentucky and Virginia purportedly canceled the action. As the debate over action continues, the election of 1800 becomes a fierce and tumultuous contest, with each side expressing extraordinary fears about others and its policies; after the Democratic Party-Republicans won in the 1800 election, they used action against the Federalists before the law finally came to an end.

Taxation and Rebellion Fries

To pay for the Quasi-War military buildup, Adams and its Federalist allies imposed a Direct Tax 1798. Direct taxation by the federal government is extremely unpopular, and government revenues under Washington come largely from taxes and excise rates. Although Washington has maintained a balanced budget with the help of a growing economy, increased military spending threatens to cause huge budget deficits, and Hamilton, Wolcott and Adams develop tax plans to meet the growing need for government revenues. The 1798 Direct Tax imposes a progressive land value tax of up to 1% of property value. The taxpayers in eastern Pennsylvania rejected the federal tax collector, and by March 1799, the bloodless Fries Rebellion broke out. Led by Revolutionary War veteran John Fries, farmers speaking in rural Germany protest what they see as a threat to the freedom of the republic and their churches. The tax rebellion raises the specter of class warfare, and Hamilton leads troops into the area to stop the insurgency. The subsequent trials of the Fries received widespread national attention, and Adams pardoned Fries and the other two after they were sentenced to execution for treason. Rebellion, army deployment, and proceedings alienate many people in Pennsylvania and other states of the Federalist Party, undermine expectations of Adams's re-election.

Midnight judge

From the beginning of his presidency, Adams has advocated for the establishment of a new federal jury, but has been rejected by Congress. After the Federalists lost control of both the congressional and presidential assemblies in the 1800 election, many opposing Federalists came to support the proposal, as the extension of the tribunal would allow for the appointment of many Federalists into tenure-laden government posts. The duck sessions of the 6th Congress approved the Justice Act of 1801, which created a set of federal appeals courts between the district courts and the Supreme Court. It also reduces the size of the Supreme Court of the six fifth judges, to apply to the next vacancy. This is done to deny Jefferson a chance to appoint justice until two vacancies occur. As Adams filled these new positions during the last days of his presidency, opposition newspapers and politicians immediately began referring to the person designated as a "midnight judge." Most of these judges lost their positions when the Democratic-dominated Congress 7 passed the 1802 Justice Act, abolished the newly created courts, and restored the federal court system to the previous structure.

After being swept out of power in 1800 by Jefferson and the Democratic-Republican Party, the Federalists focused their hopes for the survival of the republic in federal courts. For 34 years Marshall as a Supreme Court Justice, the Marshall Court played a major role in increasing the strength of the federal government and in upholding the judiciary as a branch of the federal government along with the executive and legislative branches. Then, Adams reflects, "My John Marshall Prize to the people of the United States is the most proud of my life."

Selection 1800

With the Federalist Party deeply breaking negotiations with France, and Republican-Republican opposition angry over Alien and Sedition Acts and military expansion, Adams faced a frightening reelection campaign in 1800. Even so, his position within the party was strong, buoyed by his popularity which is timeless in New England, a key area for any Federalist presidential campaign. Some observers are even talking about possible alliances between Jefferson and Adams, but such a possibility never materializes. In early 1800, members of the Federalist Congress nominated Adams and Charles C. Pinckney for the presidency; the caucus does not explicitly indicate which individual is preferred for the presidency or vice president. Meanwhile, the Democratic-Republican Party nominated Jefferson and Burr, their candidate in the previous election, but named Jefferson as the party's first choice.

The campaign was bitter and marked by a nasty personal attack. The Federalists spread rumors that the Democratic-Republican Party was a radical that would undermine the country through revolution. The Republican Democrats in turn accused the Federalists of overthrowing the principles of republic through punitive federal laws, and favoring Britain and other coalition countries in their war with France to promote aristocratic and anti-democratic values. In addition, Hamilton and his supporters took an active role in trying to sabotage the presidential reelection. In October, Hamilton published a pamphlet in which he alleged that Adams was "emotionally unstable, given to impulsive and irrational decisions, unable to coexist with his closest adviser, and generally unfit to be president." He also worked to persuade Federalist presidential supporters in New England to withhold their votes from Adams, hoping to increase the chances of Pinckney winning the presidency.

When electoral votes were counted, Adams finished in third place with 65 votes, and Pinckney came in fourth with 64 votes (one New England Federalist pick John Jay instead). Jefferson and Burr are tied for first place with each 73 votes. The elections are very close, and swings of a few hundred votes in New York can give Adams a majority vote. Because of the links between Jefferson and Burr, the elections moved to the House of Representatives. As determined by the Constitution, each state delegate elects en bloc , with each country having one vote; the absolute majority (nine, as there are 16 countries at the time) is necessary for victory. On February 17, 1801 - after the 36th vote - Jefferson was elected 10 to 4 (two abstained). Adams was not involved in contingent elections in the House of Representatives, but he personally preferred Jefferson over Burr.

Historian John E. Ferling links Adams's defeat with five factors: the powerful organization of the Democratic-Republican Party; Federalist split; controversy surrounding Alien and Sedition Acting; Jefferson's popularity in the south; and effective politicization of Aaron Burr in New York, where the state legislature shifts from Federalist to Democratic-Republican on the basis of several wards in New York City controlled by Burr's political machine. Analyzing the causes of party attacks, Adams writes, "No party has ever known itself so little or so exaggeratedly exaggerating its own influence and popularity as our own.No one ever understood the cause of his own power, or simply destroyed them. "

To add to the suffering of his defeat, Adams's son, Charles, an alcoholic, died in late November. Anxious to rejoin Abigail, who had left for Massachusetts, Adams left the White House at dawn on March 4, 1801, and did not attend Jefferson's inauguration. Only the next three presidents have not attended the inauguration of each successor.

The transfer of presidential rule between Adams and Jefferson represents the first transfer between two different political parties in US history, and sets a precedent for all subsequent party-to-party transitions. Complications arising from the elections of 1796 and 1800 prompted Congress and states to improve the process by which Electoral College elects a president and vice president. The new procedure was enacted through the 12th Amendment, which became part of the Constitution in June 1804 and first took effect in the presidential election of 1804.

Historical Reputation

Polls historian and political scientist Adams rank toward the top of the middle third of the president. Historian George Herring argues that Adams is the most independent of its founders. Though he is in harmony with the Federalist, he is rather a party to himself, disagreeing with the Federalists just as he did by the Jeffersonian Republicans. He is often described as "thorny", but his tenacity is fulfilled by the good decisions made in the face of universal opposition. Adams often fought, which reduced the president's appropriateness, as Adams himself admitted in his old age: "[As president] I refuse to suffer in silence, I sigh, cry and groan, and sometimes scream and scream. my embarrassment and grief that I sometimes swear. "Adams's determination to advance peace with France, rather than continuing hostilities, especially diminishes its popularity. It played an important role in the election defeat, but he was very pleased with the results he engraved on his tombstone. Historian Ralph Adams Brown argues that, by letting the United States out of the war with France, Adams allowed the newly emerging and developing country to become a transcontinental nation that eventually became in the 19th century.

Polls historians and political scientists generally rate Adams as the president on average or above average, and one of the best that serves a period. In the 2017 C-SPAN survey, 91 presidential historians placed the 19th Adams among 43 former presidents, (down from 17 in 2009). The ratings in various categories of this latest poll are as follows: public persuasion (22), crisis leadership (17), economic management (15), moral authority (11), international relations (13), administrative skills (21) with congress (24), vision/agenda setting (20), pursuit of equal justice for all (15), performance with the context of time (19). The 2018 poll of the American Association of the American Society Association and the Political Executive section put Adams as the 14th best president.

References

The work cited

External links

John Adams: Resource Guide at the Library of Congress
John Adams Library at Boston Public Library
Adams Family Papers: Electronic Archives at the Massachusetts Historical Society
Founders Online - Printed Volume: John Adams of the National Archives
John Adams Papers at Avalon Project
"Life Portrait of John Adams", from C-SPAN American President: Life Portraits , March 22, 1999

Source of the article : Wikipedia

Presidency of John Adams

Rabu, 27 Juni 2018