Socio-economic status ( SES ) is the combined total economic and sociological size of one's work experience and the economic and social position of an individual or family in relation to others, based on income, education, and work. When analyzing family SES, household income, education of others, and work are examined, as well as joint income, whereas for individual SES only their own attributes are assessed. However, SES is more commonly used to describe economic differences in society as a whole.
Socioeconomic status is usually broken down into three levels (high, medium, and low) to describe three places families or individuals can fall into. When placing families or individuals into one of these categories, one or all of the three variables (income, education, and employment) can be assessed.
In addition, low incomes and education have been shown to be strong predictors of various physical and mental health problems, including respiratory virus, arthritis, coronary disease, and schizophrenia. These problems may be due to environmental conditions in their workplace, or, in cases of disability or mental illness, may be the overall cause of the person's social circumstances to begin with.
Education in a higher socioeconomic family is usually emphasized far more important, both within the household and the local community. In poorer areas, where food, shelter and security are priorities, education can take the backseat. Teen audiences are particularly at risk for many health and social problems in the United States, such as unwanted pregnancy, drug abuse, and obesity.
Video Socioeconomic status
Primary factor
Earnings
Revenue refers to the wages, salaries, profits, leases, and revenue streams received. Earnings may also come in the form of unemployment or workers' compensation, social security, pensions, interest or dividends, royalties, trust, benefits or government, public or other government financial aid.
Earnings can be seen in two ways, relative and absolute. Absolute income, as theorized by economist John Maynard Keynes, is the relationship when income increases, so does consumption, but not at the same level. Relative income dictates the savings or consumption of a person or family based on family income in relation to others. Earnings are commonly used SES measures because they are relatively easy to find for most individuals.
The income inequality is most often measured worldwide by the Gini coefficient, where 0 corresponds to perfect equality and 1 means perfect inequality. Low income families focus on meeting immediate needs and not accumulating wealth that can be passed on to future generations, increasing inequality. Families with higher income and can be spent can accumulate wealth and focus on meeting urgent needs while being able to consume and enjoy the luxury and weather crisis.
Education
Education also plays a role in income. Median income increases with each level of education. As presented in the chart, the highest degree, professional and doctoral degrees, make the highest weekly income while those without a high school diploma get less. Higher education levels are associated with better economic and psychological outcomes (ie: more revenue, more control, and greater social support and networking).
Education plays a major role in the skills to gain employment, as well as the special qualities that determine people with higher SES of lower SES. Annette Lareau speaks of the idea of ​​mutual cultivation, in which middle-class parents take an active role in the education and development of their children by using controlled controlled activities and fostering a sense of entitlement through the recommended discussions. Laureau argues that low income families do not participate in this movement, causing their children to have a sense of constraint. An interesting observation that research has noted is that parents of lower SES households are more likely to give orders to their children in their interactions while parents with higher SES are more likely to interact and play with their children. The division in educational attainment is thus born out of two differences in parenting. Studies have shown how children born in lower SES households have weaker language skills than children raised in higher SES households. These language skills affect their ability to learn and thus exacerbate the problem of educational disparity between low and high SES environments. Low-income families can have children who do not make it to the level of middle-income children, who can have a greater sense of entitlement, become more argumentative, or better prepared for adult life.
Research shows that lower SES students have lower and slower academic achievement than with higher SES students. When teachers make judgments about students based on their classes and SES, they take the first step in preventing students from having equal opportunities for academic achievement. Educators need to help overcome the stigma of poverty. A low SES student and low self esteem should not be reinforced by educators. Teachers need to see students as individuals and not as members of the SES group. Teachers who see students in this way will help them not be prejudiced against students from certain SES groups. Improving the level of teaching can help create equality in student achievement. Teachers who connect the content taught to the student's early knowledge and relate it to real-world experiences can improve attainment. Educators should also be open and discuss class differences and SES. It is important that all are educated, understood, and able to speak openly about SES.
Jobs
Job performance, as one component of the SES, includes income and educational attainment. Employment status reflects the educational attainment required to gain employment and income levels that vary with different jobs and within the workforce. In addition, it shows the achievement in the skills needed for the job. The job status measures the social position by describing job characteristics, decision-making abilities and controls, and psychological demands on the job.
Jobs are ranked by Census (between other organizations) and polls from the general population surveyed. Some of the most prestigious jobs are doctors and surgeons, lawyers, chemical and biomedical engineers, university professors, and communications analysts. This work, considered to be grouped in high SES classifications, provides more challenging work and greater control over working conditions but requires more capability. Lower-ranking jobs include food preparation workers, counter attendants, bartenders and maids, dishwashers, janitors, housekeepers, vehicle cleaners, and parking attendants. The less valued work also offers much lower wages, and is often more exhausting, extremely dangerous, and gives less autonomy.
Work is the most difficult factor to measure because there are so many, and there are so many competing scales. Many scales rank work based on skill level involved, from skilled to skilled to professional workforce, or use a combined measure using the required level of education and income involved.
In short, the majority of researchers agree that income, education and employment together best represent the SES, while others feel that changes in family structure should also be considered. With a clearer definition of SES, it is now important to discuss the effects of SES on students' cognitive abilities and academic success. Some researchers have found that SES affects students' abilities.
Maps Socioeconomic status
Other variables
Wealth
Wealth , a series of reserves or economic assets, presents a security source that provides a measure of household capacity to meet emergencies, absorb economic shocks, or provide the means to live comfortably. Wealth reflects the intergenerational transition as well as the accumulation of income and savings.
Income, age, marital status, family size, religion, occupation, and education are all predictors of wealth achievement.
The wealth gap, such as income inequality, is huge in the United States. There are racial inequalities because of differences in income and differences in achievements resulting from institutional discrimination. According to Thomas Shapiro, the difference in savings (due to differences in income levels), inheritance factors, and discrimination in the housing market leads to racial wealth disparities. Shapiro claims that savings increase along with income increases, but African Americans can not participate in this, as they are significantly less than European Americans (white). In addition, the degree of inheritance is dramatically different between African Americans and European Americans. The number one inherited, either life-time or after death, can create a different starting point between two different individuals or families. These different starting points are also factors of housing, education, and employment discrimination. The third reason Shapiro offers to racial property gap is the various discriminations African Americans have to face, such as the red and higher interest rates in the housing market. These types of discrimination feed on other reasons why African-Americans end up having a different starting point and therefore fewer assets.
Effects
Health
More recently, there has been an increasing interest from epidemiologists about the problem of economic inequality and its relation to population health. Socioeconomic status has long been associated with health, those higher in the social hierarchy usually enjoy better health than those below. Socioeconomic status is an important source of health injustice, because there is a very strong positive correlation between socioeconomic status and health, in addition to homosexual men. This correlation shows that not only poor people tend to get sick when others are healthy, but there is a continuous gradient, from top to bottom of the socio-economic ladder, linking status to health. Parents with low socioeconomic status are unable to afford many health care resources which is the reason that their children may have more advanced disease due to lack of care. This phenomenon is often called "SES Gradient" or according to the World Health Organization's "Social Gradient". Lower socioeconomic status has been associated with chronic stress, heart disease, ulcers, type 2 diabetes, rheumatoid arthritis, certain types of cancer, and premature aging.
There is a debate about the causes of Gradient SES. The researchers saw a definite link between economic status and death due to the larger economic resources of the rich, but they found a small correlation due to differences in social status.
Other researchers such as Richard G. Wilkinson, J. Lynch, and G.A. Kaplan has found that socioeconomic status greatly affects health even when controlling economic resources and access to health care. The most famous for linking social status to health is the Whitehall study - a series of studies conducted on civil servants in London. The study found that although all UK civil servants have equal access to health care, there is a strong correlation between social status and health. Studies find that this relationship remains strong even when controlling health-related habits such as sports, smoking and drinking. In addition, it has been noted that no amount of medical attention will help reduce the likelihood of a person getting type 2 diabetes or rheumatoid arthritis - but both are more common among populations with lower socioeconomic status. there was no significant relationship between SES and stress during pregnancy, while there was a significant relationship between the husband's occupational status. Also, there is no significant relationship between maternal income and education and pregnancy stress levels.
Political participation
Political scientists have established a consistent relationship between SES and political participation.
Psychological
Language development
Home environment
The low SES children environment is characterized by the lack of dialogue from parents, the minimal number of books readings, and some examples of common concern, focusing on children and adults on the same object or event, when compared with the high SES environment of children. In contrast, babies from high SES families experience more speeches intended for children. At 10 months, children from high SES hear an average of 400 words more than their low SES counterparts.
Language skills differ sharply as a SES function, for example, the average vocabulary size of 3-year-olds from professional families is more than twice that of those who live in prosperity.
Children from low-income households have greater media access in their bedrooms but lower access to portable play equipment compared to higher-income children. This ultimately causes children from low socioeconomic backgrounds to be disadvantaged when comparing them with their peers in terms of access to physical activity.
Parent interactions
In addition to the number of language inputs from parents, SES strongly influences the type of parenting style that the family chooses to put into practice. This different style of parenting shapes the tone and purpose of the verbal interaction between parent and child. For example, parents of high SES tend toward more authoritative or permissive parenting styles. These parents ask more open questions to their children to encourage the last growth of speech. In contrast, parents of low SES tend to lead to more authoritarian address styles. Their conversations with their children contain more necessities and yes/no questions that hamper the child's response and speech development.
Parents' differences in dealing with children can be traced to the positions of their respective groups in society. Individual working class often holds low power, subordinate position in the world of work. This position in the social hierarchy requires a relational personality and interaction style and is able to adapt to the situation. An authoritative style of address prepares children for this type of role, requiring a more accommodating and appropriate personality. Therefore, low SES parents see families as more hierarchical, with parents at the top of power structures, which form verbal interactions. This power difference emulates the state of the working class, where individuals are ranked and are not advised to question authority.
In contrast, high SES individuals occupy high positions of power demanding more expressiveness. High SES parents encourage their children to question the world around them. In addition to asking more questions to their children, these parents encourage their children to ask their own questions. Unlike the low SES parents, these people often see power gaps between parents and children as a disadvantage to the family. Instead of choosing to treat children as equal, high SES conversations are characterized by giving and receiving between parents and children. This interaction helps prepare these children for jobs that require greater expressive power.
Disparities in language acquisition
The linguistic environment of low and high SES children is very different, affecting many aspects of language and literacy development such as semantics, syntax, morphology, and phonology.
Semantics
Semantics is the study of the meaning of words and phrases. Semantics include vocabulary, which is influenced by SES. Children from high SES have a larger expressive vocabulary at 24 months of age due to more efficient word processing. At age 3, there was a significant difference in the number of dialogues and growth of vocabulary between children of low and high SES. The lack of common interest in children contributes to poor vocabulary growth when compared to their high SES counterparts. Shared attention and reading books are important factors that affect the growth of children's vocabulary. With common concern, a child and an adult can focus on the same object, allowing the child to map words. For example, a child sees an animal running outside and mom points there and says, "Look, a dog." The boy will focus his attention on where his mother pointed and map the word dog to the pointed animal. The shared concern thus facilitates word learning for children.
Syntax
Syntax refers to the order of words and phrases to form a sentence. SES affects the production of sentence structure. Although the production of children aged 22 to 44 months from a simple sentence structure does not vary according to SES, low SES contributes to difficulties with complex sentence structures. Complex sentences include sentences that have more than one verb phrase. Examples of complicated sentences are, "I want you to sit there". The emergence of a simple sentence structure is seen as a mandatory structure in everyday conversation. Complex sentence structure is optional and can only be mastered if the environment encourages its development.
The delay in the ability of this sentence formation in low SES children may be due to less frequent exposure to complex syntax through parental speech. Low SES parents ask fewer questions that give answers to their children that limit these children's opportunities to practice more complex speech patterns. Instead, these parents gave their children more direct orders, which have been found to negatively affect the acquisition of more difficult nouns and verb phrases. In contrast, high SES households ask their children a broad question to develop speech development. Exposure to more questions positively contributes to the growth of children's vocabulary and the construction of complex noun nouns.
Morphology
Children understand morphology, the study of how words are formed, influenced by SES. Children of high SES have advantages in applying grammatical rules, such as the pluralization of nouns and adjectives compared to children of low SES. Pluralizing a noun consists of the understanding that some regular nouns and -s show more than one, but also understand how to apply different rules to irregular nouns. Learning and understanding how to use plural rules is an important tool in conversation and writing. To communicate successfully that there is more than one dog running down the street, an -s should be added to the dog. The study also found that the gap in the ability to pluralize nouns and adjectives did not diminish due to age or school due to low SES children's reaction time to explore nouns and adjectives is not reduced. ll
Phonology
Phonological awareness, the ability to recognize words made by different sound units, is also influenced by SES. Low SES children between the second and sixth grades were found to have low phonological awareness. The gap in phonological awareness increases based on grade level. This gap is even more problematic if children from low SES have been born with low levels of phonological awareness and their environment does not encourage its growth. Children who have a high phonological awareness from an early age are not affected by SES.
Positive result of low SES
Given the large amount of research on the back sets of children from low SES faces, there is a boost by child development researchers to direct more positive research into low SES. The goal is to highlight the strengths and assets of low-income families in raising children. For example, African American preschoolers from the power of a low SES exhibition in oral narrative, or storytelling, can promote success later in reading. These children have a better narrative understanding when compared to colleagues from the higher SES.
Literacy development
The gap in reading growth exists between low SES and high SES children, which widen as children move to higher grades. Reading assessments that test reading growth include steps on basic reading skills (ie, print familiarity, letter recognition, start and end of sound, rhyming voice, speech recognition), vocabulary (receptive vocabulary), and reading comprehension skills (ie, listening understanding, words in context). The growth gap reads clearly between spring kindergarten and spring first class, a time when children rely more on school to read growth and less on their parents. Initially, high SES children started out as better readers than their low SES counterparts. As children get older, high SES children grow faster in reading growth rates than low SES children. These early reading results affect subsequent academic success. The more children are left behind, the harder it is to catch up and the more likely they will continue to fall behind. As students enter high school in the United States, SES children fall far behind their high SES counterparts in reading growth.
Home environment
The home environment is one of the main factors of child welfare. Children living in poor homes with inadequate living conditions are more likely to be vulnerable to illness and injury. The gap in experience in the home environment of children from high and low SES affects reading outcomes. The home environment is considered as the main contributor to the reading of the SES. Children with low SES status read fewer and have fewer books at home than their high SES counterparts, which shows the answer why children with low SES status have lower initial reading scores than their high SES counterparts when entering the park child.
The home environment contributes the greatest to the predicted difference in early childhood reading. The characteristics of the home environment include the home literacy environment and the involvement of parents in the school. The home literacy environment is characterized by the frequency of parents involved in reading books with children, the frequency of reading children's books outside school, and the frequency with which family members visit the library with children. Parental involvement in schools is marked by attending parent-teacher conferences, attending parent-teacher association meetings (PTA), attending open houses, volunteering, participating in fundraising, and attending school events. Resources, experiences, and family-related relationships are closely linked to reading the gaps when students read the grades first assessed in kindergarten. The influence of family factors on early reading rates may be because children experience little schooling before kindergarten - they mainly have their families to rely on their reading growth.
The SES family is also associated with the growth of reading achievement during the summer. Students from high SES families continue to grow in their ability to read after kindergartens and students from low SES families lag behind in their reading growth at comparable amounts. In addition, the summer setback disproportionately affects African American and Hispanic students as they are more likely than white students to come from the low SES family. In addition, low SES families usually lack the proper resources to continue reading growth when the school is not in session.
Environmental Influence
The regulatory environment in which children grow contributes to reading the differences between low and high SES children. This environmental quality includes but is not limited to garbage or garbage on the street, people selling or using street drugs, robberies or robberies in the area, violent crime in the area, empty houses in the area, and how safe it is to play in the neighborhood. Low SES children are more likely to grow in such environmental conditions than their high SES counterparts. Community support for schools and poor physical conditions around the school are also linked to children's reading. Environmental factors help explain variations in the value of reading in school entries, and especially when children move to higher classes. Because low-income SES children in poor neighborhoods get older, they fall further behind their high SES counterparts in reading growth and thus have a more difficult time developing classroom reading skills.
In a study by M. Keels, it was determined that when low-income families were transferred from poor neighborhoods to suburban neighborhoods, there was a reduction in delinquency in children. When comparing different family social statuses, the environmental environment is a major factor in contributing to a child's growth.
The school's influence
Characteristics of the school, including peer characteristics and teachers, contribute to reading disparities between low and high SES children. For example, peers play a role in influencing early reading skills. In low SES schools, there is a higher concentration of less skilled SES, low SES, and minority peers who have lower profits in reading. The number of children reading below the classroom and the presence of low-income colleagues has consistently been associated with early achievement and growth rates. SES low friends tend to have limited skills and fewer economic resources than high SES children, which make it difficult for children to grow in their reading skills. The fastest growth in reading ability occurs between spring kindergarten and first-class spring. Teacher experience (number of years of teaching in a particular school and number of years of class level teaching), teacher preparation for teaching (based on the number of courses taken in early education, primary education, and child development), the highest degree is obtained, and the number of courses taken on teaching reading all determines whether a teacher is reading qualified. Low SES students are more likely to have less qualified teachers, who are associated with their reading growth rate significantly lower than the growth rates of their high SES peers.
Influences on nonverbal behavior
Michael Kraus and Dacher Keltner, in their study published in the December 2008 edition of Psychological Science, found that children of parents with high SES tend to express more discharge behavior than their peers from low SES. In this context, disposal behaviors include self-care, anxiety with nearby objects, and doodling while being discussed. Conversely, engagement behaviors include head nods, eyebrows conjured up, laughter and gaze on one's partner. This gesture indicates an interest in the spouse and a desire to deepen and enhance the relationship. Low SES participants tend to express more engagement behaviors toward their conversational partners, while their high-performing SES counterparts display more escape behavior. The authors hypothesize that, as SES increases, the capacity to meet a person's needs also increases. This can lead to a feeling of freer freedom, making individuals with high SES less likely to gain rapport with conversational partners as they tend to need their help in the future.
See also
References
External links
- US Census Bureau's report on educational attainment in the United States, 2003. June 2004
- Office of Socio-Economic Status of the American Psychological Association
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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