Literacy is traditionally meant as the ability to read and write. The meaning of the modern term has been extended to include the ability to use language, numbers, images, computers, and other basic means to understand, communicate, acquire useful knowledge, solve mathematical problems and use the dominant cultural symbol system. The concept of literacy develops in OECD countries to include skills to access knowledge through technology and the ability to assess complex contexts. A person traveling and living in a foreign country but unable to read or write in the language of the host country would also be regarded by the locals as illiterate.
The key to literacy is reading development, developing skills that begin with the ability to understand spoken words and decode written words, and culminate in a deep understanding of the text. The development of reading involves a variety of complex language foundations including awareness of speech sounds (phonology), spelling patterns (orthography), word meaning (semantics), grammar (syntax) and word-forming patterns (morphology), all of which provide the platform necessary to read fluency and understanding.
Once this skill is obtained, the reader can achieve full language literacy, including the ability to apply to critical analysis of printed materials, inferences and syntheses; to write with accuracy and coherence; and using information and insight from the text as the basis for creative decisions and thinking. The inability to do so is called illiteracy or analogy.
The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) defines literacy as "the ability to identify, understand, interpret, create, communicate and calculate, using printed and written materials that are linked to various contexts.Literacy involves the continuum of learning in enabling individuals to achieve their goal, to develop their knowledge and potential, and to participate fully in their communities and society at large. "
Video Literacy
History
Prehistoric literature
Origins of literacy
Literacy was first estimated with the development of numeracy and computing devices in the early 8,000 BC. The script was developed independently at least four times in human history in Mesopotamia, Egypt, the Mesoamerican lowlands, and China.
The earliest forms of written communication originated from the Sumerians, located in southern Mesopotamia around 3500-3000 BC. During this era, literacy was "a highly functional problem, driven by the need to manage the amount of new information and the kind of new government created by large scale trade and production". The writing system in Mesopotamia first emerged from a recording system where people used token tokens impressed to manage trade and agricultural production. The token system serves as a precursor to early nail writing once people begin recording information on clay tablets. The proto-cuneiform text not only shows numerical marks, but also an ideogram that describes the calculated objects.
Egyptian hieroglyphs emerged from 3300-3100 BC and depict royal iconography that emphasizes strength among other elites. Egyptian hieroglyphic writing system is the first notation system that has phonetic value.
Writing in the Mesoamerican lowlands was first practiced by Olmec civilization and Zapotec at 900-400 BCE. This civilization uses the glyphic writing system and bar-and-dot numerical notation for requirements related to royal iconography and calendar system.
The earliest written notation in China came from the Shang Dynasty in 1200 BC. This systematic notation is found written on the bones and records the sacrifices made, the tributes received, and the hunted animals, which are the activities of the elite. This oracle-bone inscription is the earliest ancestor of modern Chinese manuscripts and contains scripts and logosilabis numbers.
These examples show that the initial act of literacy is closely related to power and is primarily used for management practice, and perhaps less than 1% of the population is educated, as it is limited to the very small ruling elite.
Origins of the alphabet
According to social anthropologist Jack Goody, there are two interpretations that assume the origin of the alphabet. Many classical scholars, such as historian Ignace Gelb, praised the Ancient Greeks for inventing the first alphabetical system (c 750 BC) which uses distinctive signs for consonants and vowels. However, Goody argues, "The importance of Greek culture from the history of western Europe has further led to excessive emphasis, by classists and others, on the addition of special vowel markings to consonant clusters that have been developed previously in the West."
Thus, many scholars argue that the ancient Semitic-speaking people from northern Canaan (modern Syria) discovered the consonant alphabet around 1500 BC. Much of the development of this theory is credited to the English archaeologist Flinders Petrie, who, in 1905, discovered a series of Canaan inscriptions located in the turquoise blue mines of Serabit el-Khadem. Ten years later, Egyptian Englishman Alan Gardiner reasoned that these letters contain the alphabet, as well as references to the goddess Canaan Asherah. In 1948, William F. Albright outlined the text using additional evidence that had been discovered after the discovery of Goody. This includes a series of inscriptions from Ugarit, discovered in 1929 by French archaeologist Claude F. A. Schaeffer. Some of these inscriptions are mythological texts (written in ancient Canaan dialect) consisting of a 32 letter consonant alphabet.
Another important discovery was made in 1953 when three arrows were found, each containing an identical Canaan inscription from the 12th century BC. According to Frank Moore Cross, these inscriptions consist of alphabetical signs that originate during the development of the transition from the pictographic script to the linear alphabet. In addition, he asserted, "This inscription also provides clues to expand the parsing of early and later alphabetical texts".
The consonant system of the Canaanite script inspired the development of the alphabet in the next system. During the Late Bronze Age, replacement alphabets appear throughout the Mediterranean region and are used for Phenicia, Hebrew and Aramaic.
According to Goody, this nail script may have influenced the development of the Greek alphabet centuries later. Historically, the Greeks argued that their writing system was modeled after Phoenician. However, many Semitic scholars now believe that the Ancient Greeks were more consistent with the early forms of Canaan used c. 1100 BC. While the ancient Greek inscription dated c. the eighth century BCE, the epigraphic comparison to Proto-Canaan suggests that the Greeks might have adopted the consonant alphabet around the beginning of 1100 BC, and then "added in five characters to represent the vowel".
Phenicia, considered to contain the first "linear alphabet", quickly spread to Mediterranean port cities in northern Canaan. Some archaeologists believe that the Phoenician scriptures had an influence on the development of the Hebrew and Aramaic alphabets based on the fact that this language evolved over the same time period, had the same features, and was generally categorized into the same language group.
When the Israelites migrated to Canaan between 1200 and 1001 BC, they also adopted variations of the Canaanite alphabet. Baruch ben Neriah, Jeremiah's scribe, used this alphabet to create subsequent scripts from the Old Testament. The earliest Hebrew Alphabets were prominent in the Mediterranean region until the Babylonian ruler Chaldean exiled the Jews to Babylon in the sixth century BC. That's when a new script ("Square Hebrew") appears and the older one quickly dies.
The Aramaic alphabet also appears roughly between 1200 and 1001 BC. When the Bronze Age collapsed, the Aramaans moved into Canaan and Phoenician territories and adopted their script. Although the earliest evidence of this article is rare, archaeologists have discovered various Aramaic texts, written in the early 7th century BC. Due to their longevity and prevalence in the region, the Achaemenid rulers will adopt it as a "diplomatic language". The modern Aramaic alphabet quickly spread eastward to the Kingdom of Nabataea, then to the Sinai and the Arabian Peninsula, eventually leading to Africa. Aramaic traders bring an older variation of language to India, where it later influences the development of the Brahmi scriptures. It also leads to the development of Arabic, Pahlavi (Iranian adaptation), "as well as to the various alphabets used by early Turkic and Mongol tribes in Siberia, Mongolia and Turkestan." Literacy in this period is spread by the merchant class and may have grown to 15-20% of the total population.
Aramaic will die with the spread of Islam and with it, its influence on Arabic.
The ancient and post-classical literacy
Until now there is the assumption that the majority of the illiterate people in ancient times. However, recent work will challenge this perception. Anthony DiRenzo asserted that Roman society was "a civilization based on books and lists", and "no one, free or slave, can be illiterate." Similarly Dupont pointed out, "Written words are all around them, both in public and private life: laws, calendars, ordinances in sacred places, and gravestones carved in stone or bronze.The Republic gathers large archives report on every aspect of public life ".
When the Western Roman Empire collapsed, literacy became a mark that distinguished the elite, and the communication skills were politically important. However, in pre-modern times, literacy is impossible to be found in more than about 30-40% of the population.
By the end of the 4th century Pastor Pachomius expected the literacy of a candidate to be admitted to the monasteries:
they will give him twenty psalms or two from the epistles of the Apostles or other parts of Scripture. And if he is illiterate, he will leave at the first, third and sixth hour to someone who can teach and have been appointed to him. He will stand before him and study with great diligence and with all gratitude. The basics of a syllable, a verb and a noun should all be written for him and even if he does not want him to be forced to read.
Maps Literacy
Modern Literacy
The spread of literacy since the mid-twentieth century
Literacy data published by UNESCO shows that since 1950, the adult literacy rate at the world level has increased by 5 percentage points per decade on average, from 55.7 percent in 1950 to 86.2 percent in 2015. However, during four decades, population growth so fast that the number of illiterate adults continues to increase, rising from 700 million in 1950 to 878 million in 1990. Since then, the number has dropped sharply to 745 million by 2015, although it remains higher than in the 1950s despite the universal decade of educational policy, literacy intervention and dissemination of printed materials and information and communication technologies (ICTs). However, this trend is far from uniform across the region.
Regional differences
Available global data show significant variations in literacy rates between world regions. North America, Europe, West Asia, and Central Asia have reached almost full adult literacy (individuals at or above the age of 15) for men and women. Most countries in East Asia and the Pacific, as well as Latin America and the Caribbean, are above the literacy rate of 90% for adults. Illiteracy continues in other areas: The UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS) 2013 data shows only adult literacy rates, 67.55% in South Asia and North Africa, 59.76% in Sub-Saharan Africa.
In most of the world, high adolescent literacy rates indicate that illiteracy will become increasingly uncommon because younger generations with higher levels of education replace older ones. However, in sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia, where most illiterate youth in the world live, lower school enrollment implies that illiteracy will continue to a greater extent. According to UIS 2013 data, adolescent literacy rates (individuals ages 15 to 24) were 84.03% in South Asia and North Africa, and 70.06% in Sub-Saharan Africa.
That being said, literacy has rapidly spread across several areas in the past twenty-five years (see figure).
Gender differences
On a world scale, illiterate disproportionately affects women. According to data of the UIS 2015 collected by the UNESCO Institute for Statistics, about two-thirds (63%) of the world's illiterate adults are women. This gap is even tougher in the preceding decades: from 1970 to 2000, the global gender gap in literacy will decline by about 50%. However, in recent years, these advances have stagnated, with the gender gap remaining almost constant over the past two decades. In general, the gender gap in literacy is not as clear as regional gaps; that is, the difference between countries in literacy as a whole is often greater than gender differences within countries. However, the gap between men and women will narrow since 1990 and beyond, after an adult literacy rate increase of 80 percent (see figure).
Sub-Saharan Africa, the region with the lowest overall literacy rate, also has the widest gender gap: only 52% of adult literate women, and 68% among adult men. Similar gender gaps exist in two other regions, North Africa (86% literate men, 70% adult literate women) and South Asia (77% adult literate men, 58% adult literate women).
The 1990 World Conference on Education for All, held in Jomtien, Thailand, will bring attention to the gender literacy gap and encourage many developing countries to prioritize women's literacy. In the last decade, the global development agenda will increasingly address the issue of women's literacy. For example, UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon will focus on the 2010 International Literacy Day 2010 theme "Empowering Women Through Literacy Empowering Us All," emphasizing the widespread public progress that can increase women's literacy rates.
In many contexts, illiterate women coexist with other aspects of gender inequality. Martha Nussbaum, for example, makes illiterate women more vulnerable to being trapped in abusive marriages, given that illiteracy limits their employment opportunities and exacerbates bargaining positions in their households. In addition, Nussbaum connects literacy with the potential of women to communicate effectively and collaborate with one another in order to "participate in a larger movement for political change."
The challenge of improving women's literacy
Social barriers prevent the increase of literacy skills among women and girls. Making available literacy classes can be ineffective when the conflict is at odds with the limited time spent valuable to women and girls. School-age girls, in many contexts, face a stronger expectation than their male counterparts to do housework and care about their younger brothers and sisters. The dynamics of generations can also perpetuate these differences: illiterate parents may not be prepared to appreciate the value of literacy for their daughters, especially in rural traditional societies in the hope that girls will remain at home.
The World Bank 2015 and the International Center for Women's Research reviewing academic literature will conclude that child marriages, which mainly impact on girls, tend to reduce literacy rates. A 2008 analysis of the problem in Bangladesh found that for each additional year of delay in a girl's marriage, the likelihood of literacy would increase by 5.6 percent. Similarly, a study of 2014 found that in sub-Saharan Africa, married earlier would significantly reduce the likelihood of a literate woman, holding another constant variable. The 2015 review of child marriage literature will therefore recommend a marriage delays as part of a strategy to improve the level of educational attainment, including women's literacy in particular.
Gender gap for boys in the developed world
While women and girls make up the majority of the global illiteracy population, in many developed countries, literary gender gaps are in the opposite direction. Data from the International Student Assessment Program (PISA) consistently demonstrates the low reading level of boys in the member states of the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). Given these findings, many education specialists have recommended changes in classroom practice to better accommodate boys' learning styles, and to remove any gender stereotypes that can create reading and writing perceptions as feminine activities.
Socioeconomic impact
Many policy analysts consider the literacy rate as an important measure of the human resource value of a region. For example, people who can read can be trained more easily than illiterates, and generally have higher socioeconomic status; so they enjoy better health and job prospects. The international community has considered literacy as a key facilitator and development objective. In connection with the Sustainable Development Objectives adopted by the UN in 2015, the Lifelong Learning Institute of UNESCO has declared "a central role of literacy in responding to sustainable development challenges such as health, social equity, economic empowerment and environmental sustainability."
Health impact
Illiterate people are generally less knowledgeable about hygiene and nutrition practices, unconsciousness that can exacerbate health problems. In developing countries in particular, literacy rates also have implications for child mortality; in this context, children of illiterate mothers are 50% more likely to live past the age of 5 than children of illiterate mothers. Public health research has thus increasingly been self-interested with the potential literacy capabilities to enable women to more successfully access the health care system, thereby facilitating the acquisition of child health.
For example, a 2014 descriptive research survey project correlates the literacy level with the socioeconomic status of women in Oyo, Nigeria. The study claims that developing literacy in this area will bring "economic empowerment and will encourage rural women to practice hygiene, which in turn will lead to reduced birth and mortality rates."
Economic impact
Literacy can improve job opportunities and access to higher education. In 2009, the National Adult Literacy Agency (NALA) in Ireland commissioned a cost benefit analysis of adult literacy training. It concludes that there are economic benefits to the individual, the company they work for, and the Minister of Finance, as well as the economy and the country as a whole - for example, an increase in GDP. Korotayev and his coauthors have revealed a significant correlation between literacy levels early in the 19th century and successful modernization and economic breakthroughs in the late 20th century, since "literate people can be characterized by a greater level of innovative activity, which gives opportunities for modernization, development, and economic growth ".
Literacy promotion efforts
While informal learning in the home can play an important role in the development of literacy, gains in childhood literacy often occur in elementary schools. Continuing the global expansion of public education is thus often the focus of literacy supporters. This widespread increase in education often requires a centralized effort by the national government; alternatively, local literacy projects implemented by NGOs can play an important role, especially in the rural context.
Funding for youth and adult literacy programs often comes from large international development organizations. USAID, for example, directs donors such as the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation and the Global Partnership for Education towards the issue of childhood literacy by developing a First Class Reading Assessment. Advocacy groups such as the National Institute of Adult Education have frequently requested international organizations such as UNESCO, the International Labor Organization, World Health Organization and the World Bank to prioritize support for adult women literacy. Efforts to increase adult literacy often include other development priorities as well; for example, initiatives in Ethiopia, Morocco and India have combined adult literacy programs with vocational training to promote enrollment and address the complex needs of women and other marginalized groups with no economic opportunity.
In 2013, the UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning publishes a series of case studies on programs that improve women's literacy. The report presents countries from different regions and different levels of income, reflecting a general global consensus on "the need to empower women through literacy acquisition skills." Part of the impetus for UNESCO's focus on literacy is a broader effort to respond to globalization and the "shift toward knowledge-based society" it has generated. While globalization presents emerging challenges, it also provides new opportunities: many education and development experts hope that new information and communication technologies (ICTs) will have the potential to expand literacy learning opportunities for children and adults, even in countries where historically having trouble. to improve literacy through more conventional means.
Literacy as a development indicator
The Human Development Index, produced by the United Nations Development Program (UNDP), uses education as one of its three indicators; Initially, adult literacy represents two-thirds of the educational index's weight. However, in 2010, UNDP replaced the adult literacy measure with the average school year. A UNDP 2011 research paper frames this change as a way to "ensure its current relevance," arguing that the increase in global literacy achieved between 1970 and 2010 means that literacy will be "unlikely to be informative about the future." However, other scholars have since warned to ignore the importance of literacy as an indicator and development goal, especially for marginalized groups such as women and rural residents.
Literacy as a human right
Literacy is an important human right for lifelong learning and social change. As endorsed by the Report of the International Commission on Education for the 20th Century of 1996, and the 1997 Hamburg Declaration: 'Literacy, widely understood as the basic knowledge and skills needed by everyone in a rapidly changing world, is a fundamental human right.. (...) There are millions, the majority of whom are women, who have no opportunity to learn or who have inadequate skills to be able to assert this right. The challenge is to enable them to do so. This will often imply the creation of a prerequisite for learning through awareness-raising and empowerment. Literacy is also a catalyst for participation in social, cultural, political and economic activities, and for lifelong learning '.
AS. public library efforts to promote literacy
Public libraries have long been a force promoting literacy in many countries. In the US context, the American Library Association promotes literacy through the work of the Office for Service Literacy and Reach. The allegations of this committee include ensuring fair access to information and advocacy for new and non-readers. The Association of Public Libraries recognizes the importance of early childhood in the literacy development role and creates, in collaboration with the Library Services Association for Children, Every Child Ready to Read in your library to inform and support parents and caregivers in their efforts to raise children who become an educated adult. The release of the National Adult Justice Assessment report (NAAL) in 2005 revealed that about 14% of US adults function at the lowest literacy rate; 29% of adults function at the level of basic functional literacy and can not help their children with homework beyond the first few values. Lack of reading skills prevents adults from reaching their full potential. They may have trouble getting and keeping jobs, providing for their families, or even reading stories for their children. For adults, libraries may be the only source of literacy programs.
April 30: Him! Diversity in Action
He! Representative of Diversity in Action and also known as "El Dia de los Ninos/El dia de los libros" is a program that celebrates the importance of reading for children from all cultural and linguistic backgrounds. He! celebrated every year on April 30 at schools, libraries, and home and this website provides tools and programs to encourage reading in children. Parents, caregivers, and educators can even start a book club.
READ/Orange County
This community literacy program was started in 1992 by the Orange County Public Library in California. The READ/Orange County Mission is to "create a more educated community by providing high quality services to everyone looking for them." Potential trainers train during an extensive 23-hour teacher coaching tutorial where they learn the philosophy, techniques, and tools they need to work with adult learning. After the training, the tutors invest at least 50 hours a year to teach their students. Organizations are built on people's experiences and education rather than trying to make up for what has not been learned. The program aims to equip students with the skills to continue studying in the future. The guiding philosophy is that adults who learn to read create a ripple effect in society. The person is a role model for children and grandchildren and can serve the community better.
BoulderReads!
Located in Boulder, Colorado, the program recognizes the difficulties students experience in obtaining childcare while attending a tutoring session, and joins the University of Colorado to provide reading friends to students' children. Friends' reading fits the children of adult literacy students with students who meet them once a week for an hour and a half. Students receive lecture credits to try to improve the quality and reliability of their time. Each Reading Reading session focuses mainly on students who read aloud with the child. The goal is to help children gain interest in books and feel comfortable reading aloud. Time is also spent on word games, writing letters, or finding books in the library. Throughout the semester, the couple works to write and illustrate a book together. The value of the student depends in part on the completion of the book. Although Reading Buddy started primarily as an answer to the lack of child care for literacy students, it has evolved into yet another aspect of the program. The participating children showed a marked improvement in their reading and writing skills throughout the semester.
Hillsborough Literacy Council (HLC)
About 120,000 adults in Hillsborough County are illiterate or read below grade four levels. Working since 1986, HLC "is committed to improving literacy by empowering adults through education". Sponsored by the Literacy Coalition throughout the state of Florida, HLC seeks to improve adult literacy skills in Hillsborough County, Florida. HLC provides English lessons for other language speakers (ESOL). Through one-on-one guidance, organizations work to help adult students reach at least the fifth grade level.
Broader and complementary definitions
Traditionally, literacy is the ability to use written language actively and passively; one of the definitions of literacy is the ability to "read, write, spell, listen, and speak". Since the 1980s, some have argued that literacy is ideological, which means that literacy always exists in context, along with the values ​​associated with that context. Previous work sees literacy as something that exists autonomously.
Some argue that the definition of literacy should be expanded. For example, in the United States, the National Council of English Teachers and the International Reading Association have added "visually representing" to the list of traditional competencies. Similarly, in Scotland, literacy has been defined as: "The ability to read, write and use numeracy, to handle information, to express ideas and opinions, to make decisions and solve problems, as family members, workers, citizens and lifelong learners ". It is said that literacy includes the cultural, political, and historical context of the community in which communication takes place.
The basic literacy standard in many places is the ability to read newspapers. Increasingly, communication in commerce and in general requires the ability to use computers and other digital technologies. Since the 1990s, when the Internet became widely used in the United States, some have argued that the definition of literacy should include the ability to use tools such as web browsers, word processing programs, and text messaging. Similar skills devices have been called multimedia literacy, computer literacy, information literacy, and technology literacy. Some experts propose the idea of ​​multiliteracies that include Functional Literacy, Critical Literacy, and Rhetorical Literacy.
The "Literacy of Arts" program is available in several places in the United States. Visual literacy also includes the ability to understand forms of visual communication such as body language, images, maps, and videos. The evolution of literacy definitions often includes all symbol systems relevant to a particular community.
Other genres studied by academics include critical literacy, media literacy, ecological literacy and health literacy With increasing emphasis on evidence-based decision making, and the use of statistical and information graphs, statistical literacy becomes a very important aspect of literacy in general.. The International Statistical Literacy Project is dedicated to promoting statistical literacy among all members of society.
Given that most of the benefits of literacy can be obtained by having access to educated people in the household, some of the last literature on the economy, beginning with the works of Kaushik Basu and James Foster, distinguish between "illiteracy" and "isolated illiteracy." The first refers to an illiterate person living in a household with a literate person and the latter being illiterate living in the household of all illiterates. The concern is that many people in poor countries are not only illiterate but also illiterate.
Teaching literacy
The teaching of English literacy in the United States is dominated by a focus on a set of discrete decoding skills. From this perspective, literacy - or, rather, reading - consists of a number of subskills that can be taught to students. These skills include phonological awareness, phonics (decoding), fluency, understanding, and vocabulary. Mastering each of these subskills is required for students to become proficient readers.
From the same perspective, alphabetic language readers should understand the alphabetical principle to master basic reading skills. For this purpose the writing system is "alphabetical" if using symbols to represent individual language sounds, although the correspondence level between letters and sounds varies between alphabetical languages. The syllable writing system (such as Japanese kana) uses symbols to represent a single syllable, and logographic writing systems (such as Chinese) use symbols to represent morphemes.
There are a number of approaches to teaching literacy; each formed by assumptions that inform what literacy is and how best to be learned by the student. Phonics instructions, for example, focus on reading at the word level. It teaches the reader to observe and interpret the letter or group of letters that make up the words. The common method of phonics teaching is a synthetic phenomenon, in which the novice reader speaks every individual voice and "blends" them to utter the whole word. Another approach is the embedded phonic instruction, used more frequently in the instruction of reading the entire language, where the novice reader learns about each letter in words at the right time, precisely-in-place adapted to meet each student's reading and writing learning needs. That is, teachers give phenomenal instruction opportunistically, in the context of a student's story or writing that features many sample letters or groups of specific letters. Embedded instructions combine voice-letter knowledge with meaningful use of context to read new and difficult words. Techniques such as directional listening and thinking activities can be used to help children learn to read and understand reading.
In the 2012 proposal, it has been claimed that reading can be obtained naturally if printing continues to be available at an early age in the same way as spoken language. If the appropriate form of written text is available before formal schooling begins, reading should be studied inductively, naturally, and without significant negative consequences. This proposal challenges the common belief that written language requires formal instruction and schooling. His success will change his current view of literacy and schooling. Using developments in behavioral science and technology, the Technology Assisted Reading Acquisition (TARA) system will allow young pre-literacy children to accurately understand and study the properties of the written language with simple exposure to the written form.
In Australia, a number of state governments have introduced the Reading Challenge to increase literacy. The Premier Reading Challenge in South Australia, launched by Premier Mike Rann has one of the highest levels of participation in the world for reading challenges. It has been embraced by more than 95% of public, private and religious schools.
Post-conflict settings
The program has been implemented in areas that have ongoing conflict or in the post-conflict phase. The Norwegian Refugee Council Pack program has been used in 13 post-conflict countries since 2003. Program organizers believe that daily routines and other prudent predictable activities help transition from war to peace. Learners can choose one field in job training for one year. They complete the required courses in agriculture, life skills, literacy and numeracy. The results indicate that active participation and management of program members is critical to the success of the program. These programs share the use of integrated basic education, eg literacy, numeracy, scientific knowledge, local history and culture, native and mainstream language skills, and apprenticeship.
Teaching non-native users
Despite considerable awareness that language deficiency (lack of proficiency) is unfavorable for immigrant settlers in the new host country, there appears to be a lack of pedagogical approaches that address literacy instruction to migrant English learners (ELLs). Harvard scientist Catherine Snow (2001) calls for a loophole to address: "The TESOL field requires an integrated research effort to inform the literacy instruction for these children... to determine when to start literacy instruction and how to adapt it to the LS readers' needs". The scenarios become more complex when there is no choice in decisions as in the case of current migration trends with citizens from the Middle East and Africa being relocated to UK-majority countries for various political or social reasons. Recent developments to address gaps in teaching literacy to second or foreign language learners have taken place and promising results have been demonstrated by Pearson and Pellerine (2010) that integrate Teaching for Understanding, the curricular framework of the Harvard Graduate School of Education. A series of pilot projects have been conducted in the Middle East and Africa (see Patil, 2016). In this work a significant interest from the learner's perspective has been observed through the integration of visual arts as a spring for literacy-oriented instruction. In one case, female migrants were given cameras and a walking tour in their local village was given to the instructor when the ladies photographed their tours focusing on the places and activities that would later be used for writing about their daily lives. The point is the narrative of life. Other primers for writing activities include: paintings, sketches, and other craft projects (eg gluing activities).
A series of pilot studies were undertaken to investigate alternatives for instructing literacy into ELL migrants, ranging from simple trials aimed at testing photographic teaching for participants without previous photographic backgrounds, to isolate painting and sketch activities that could later be integrated into more pedagogical initiatives big. In an effort to develop an alternative approach to literacy instruction using visual art, work is done with Afghan workers, Bangladeshi tailors, Emirate media students, internal Ethiopian migrants (both workers and students), and a street kid.
It should be emphasized that in such challenging contexts sometimes literacy teaching may have unforeseen obstacles. The EL Gazette reports that in trials conducted in Ethiopia, for example, it was found that all ten participants had problems with vision. To overcome this, or to avoid such challenges, early health checks can help inform pre-teaching to better assist in teaching/learning literacy.
In visual art approaches to literacy learning, the benefits can be the inclusion of traditional literacy approaches (reading and writing) while at the same time addressing 21st century digital literacy instruction through the inclusion of digital cameras and posting images to the web. Many scholars feel that the inclusion of digital literacy is needed to be incorporated under the traditional umbrella of literacy instruction especially when it involves a second language learner. (Also see: Digital Literacy.)
Another way in which visual art has been integrated into literacy instruction for migrant populations includes integrating aspects of the visual arts by mixing core curricular goals.
Teaching migrant/immigrant language users
The more urgent challenge in education is the literacy instruction for the Migrant English Learner (MELLs), a term coined by Pellerine. This is not just limited to English. "Due to the growing number of immigrants in many Western societies, there is growing concern over the extent to which immigrants acquire the language spoken in the destination country" (Tubergen 2006). Given that literate teachers for indigenous people in their L1 can be a challenge, and the challenge becomes more cognitively demanding when in second language (L2), the task can become much more difficult when faced with a migrant who has made a sudden change (migration) and requires a second language upon arrival in the destination country. In many cases a migrant will not have the opportunity, for many obvious reasons, to start school again in first grade and acquire a language naturally. In this situation alternative interventions need to be done.
In working with illiterates (and low-proficiency individuals in L2) following the composition of some artifacts such as taking photos, sketching events, or painting pictures, the orality stage has been seen as an effective way to understand the purpose of the learner.
In the attached picture from left to right a) the picture is taken during phototour from the participant village. This picture is the individual in his shop, and this is one of his products he sells, the dirt for cooking fuel. The images help the companion understand the realities of the day-to-day life of the participants and most importantly it allows participants the opportunity to choose what they consider important to them. b) This is a picture of a student explaining and describing a series of milestones in his life to a group. In this picture the students have very basic skills and with the help of can write a brief description under the picture. While he talks recording his story happens to understand his story and to help develop it in L2. The third image is a painting that has been used with a composite in Photoshop. With further training participants can learn how to blend the images they want to introduce the elements of digital literacy, beneficial in many areas of life in the 21st century.
In the following figure (see right) you can see two samples 1) One in Ethiopia from stencils to a more developed composition based on a village tour, photography, and painting. 2) In the Middle East in tailor shops that focus on English for Specific Purposes (ESP) and in this example writing has evolved from photography, sketches and in situ exposure to instructors (such as village tours in sample one).
From work based in Ethiopia, participants were asked to assess the preference of activities, on a scale of 1-10. The survey questions are: On a scale of 1 - 10, how do you rate photography as an activity that helps you get inspired for your writing activities (think pleasure and usefulness). The following activities are assessed, in order of preference - activities used as the primary to write:
- Photography 97%
- Presentation of oral sharing of your artwork is 92%
- The painting process 84% ​​
- Paintings 82%
- Sketch 78%
- 72% activity gluing
- 60% stencil/search activity
More research needs to be done to confirm the trend.
In bringing together students 'work in a culminating project, the authorship program has succeeded in bringing students' work in book format. Such artifacts can be used for document learning, but more importantly strengthen the language and content objectives.
The culmination of these writings, into the book can generate intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. The form of feedback by students involved in such initiative responses has shown that healthy pressure from collective and collaborative work is beneficial.
Importance
Teaching people to read and write, in the traditional sense of meaning (literacy) is a very complex task in the native language. To do this in a second language becomes increasingly complex, and in the case of migrants moving to other countries, there are legal and policy boundaries prohibiting the naturalization and acquisition of vessels based on language skills. In Canada for example, despite debate, language tests are required years after settling in Canada. Similarly exist globally, see:, and for example.
The EL Gazette reviewed Pellerine's work with migrant English learners and commented: "Submitting an English learner with a sponge and some paint and asking them to 'paint what comes' may not seem like a promising teaching method for foreign languages, but Canadian EL instructor and photographer Steve Pellerine has found that the technique, along with others based around visual arts, has helped some of his most challenging groups to study Visual art has been viewed as an effective way to approach literacy instruction - the art that becomes the basis for further literary work in curricular design, such as Teaching for Understanding (TfU) or Definition by Design (UbD).
Literacy by continent
Literacy in Europe
United Kingdom
English
Literacy was first documented in modern British territory on September 25, 54 BC, where the days of Julius Caesar and Quintus Cicero wrote to Cicero "from the nearest coast of England". Literacy was widespread under Roman rule, but became extremely rare, limited almost entirely to the church people, following the fall of the Western Roman Empire. In the 12th and 13th century England, the ability to read certain parts of the Bible in Latin entitled a defendant is common law for so-called priesthood benefits - that is, a court in front of an ecclesiastical court, where the punishment is lighter, than the secular one, hanging is a possible sentence. So educated lay layers often claim the right to benefit from the priest, while the illiterate who has memorized the psalm is used as a literacy test, Psalm 51 ("Oh God, have mercy on me..."), can also claim the benefit of the clergy. Despite not having a free and compulsory primary education system, the British managed to achieve universal literacy in the nineteenth century as a result of shared informal learning systems such as family members, co-workers, and/or good-hearted employers, to name a few. Even with almost universal literacy rates, the gap between the literacy rates of men and women continued until the beginning of the 20th century. Many readers of women in the West during the nineteenth century could read, but could not write.
Wales
Formal high education in art and science in Wales, from the Dark Ages to the 18th century, is the preservation of the rich and the priests. As in England, Welsh history and archaeological discoveries originating from the Bronze Age not only reveal reading and writing, but also alchemy, botany, mathematics and advanced science. After the Roman occupation and conquest by England, education in Wales was at a very low ebb in the early modern period; in particular, formal education is only available in English while the majority of the population speaks only the language of Wales. The first modern grammar school was founded in the Welsh cities such as Ruthin, Brecon, and Cowbridge. One of the first modern national educational methods that used the original Welsh language was started by Griffith Jones in 1731. Jones was the rector of Llanddowror from 1716 and remained there for the rest of his life. He organized and introduced the Welsh outstanding secondary school system, which was interesting and effective for Welsh speakers, while also teaching them English, which gave them access to wider educational resources. Circulating schools may have taught half the population of the country to read. The literacy rate in Wales in the mid-18th century was one of the highest.
Continental Europe
The ability to read does not necessarily mean writing ability. The church legislation of 1686 (kyrkolagen ) of the Swedish Empire (which at the time included all modern Sweden, Finland, Latvia and Estonia) imposed literacy on people, and by 1800 the ability to read was approaching 100%. This directly depends on the need to read religious texts in the Lutheran faith in Sweden and Finland. As a result, literacy in these countries tends to read, in particular. But by the end of the nineteenth century, many Swedes, especially women, could not write. Exceptions to this rule are Icelandic men and women who achieve widespread literacy without formal education, libraries, or printed books through informal school tuition by religious leaders and peasant teachers. That said, the situation in the UK is much worse than in Scandinavia, France, and Prussia: until the end of 1841, 33% of all Britons and 44% of British women signed marriage certificates with their sign because they could not write (financed government public education not available in England until 1870 and, even later, on a limited basis).
Historian Ernest Gellner argues that Continental European countries are far more successful in implementing educational reforms precisely because their governments are more willing to invest in the population as a whole. Government oversight allows countries to standardize a safe curriculum and funding through legislation enabling education programs to have a wider reach.
Although the concept of literacy today has much to do with the invention of the 15th century of this type of moving printing press, it was not until the Industrial Revolution of the mid-nineteenth century that paper and books became affordable for all classes of industrial society. Until then, only a small percentage of the population is literate because only wealthy people and institutions can afford these materials. Even today, paper and book costs are an obstacle to universal literacy in some less industrialized countries.
On the other hand, historian Harvey Graff argues that the introduction of a mass school is partly an attempt to control the kind of literacy accessible to the working class. According to Graff, literacy learning increases beyond formal arrangements (such as schools) and uncontrolled and potentially critical readings can lead to increased public radicalization. In his view, a mass school is meant to control and control literacy, not to spread it. Graff also points out, using the Swedish example, that mass literacy can be achieved without formal education or written instruction.
Literacy in North America
Canada
In his research on the literacy rate of men and women in New France, Trudel found that in 1663, of the 1,224 people in New France who were married, 59% of men and 46% of brides wrote their names; However, of the 3,000-plus colony population, less than 40% are indigenous. Therefore, the level of signatures may better reflect the literacy rate among French immigrants. Magnuson's (1985) study reveals a trend: the signing rate for the 1680-1699 period was 42% for men, 30% for women; in 1657-1715, they were 45% for men and 43% for women; in 1745-1754, they were higher for women than for men. He believes that this increasing trend in women's ability to sign documents is largely attributed to the greater number of female religious orders, and to women's more active role in health and education, while the role of male religious orders is largely to serve as parish priests, missionaries, military pastors and explorers. 1752 marks the date of Canada's first newspaper - Halifax Gazette - began to be published.
From the Conquest of England (1763) to Confederation (1867)
The end of the Seven Year War in 1763 enabled two Philadelphia printers to come to QuÃÆ' Â © bec City and start printing bilingual Quebec Gazettes in 1764, while in 1785 Fleury Mesplet started the publication of Montreal Gazette , which is now the oldest newspaper still in existence in the country.
In the nineteenth century, everything about mold changed, and lectors in its various forms became much more available. But educating the Canadian population in reading and writing remains a great challenge. Concerned about France's strong presence in the colony, the British government repeatedly tried to help establish schools that were beyond the control of religious authority, but these efforts were largely undermined by the Catholic Church and later Anglican priests.
From the early 1820s in Lower Canada, the classical college curriculum, monopolized by the Church, was also subject to increasing liberalism and lay criticism, arguing that it was first and foremost to produce priests, when the Lower Canadians were required to compete effective. with foreign industry and trade and with immigrants who monopolize trade (Curtis, 1985). Liberal and lay efforts to promote parochial schools resulted in reactions from Catholics and later Anglican priests in which the danger of popular literacy centered centrally. Both churches share opposition to any educational plan that encourages reading of the Bible, and a second spokesman warns of the evil and demoralizing tendencies of unregulated readings in general. Given the power to organize parish schools through the Vestry School Act of 1824, the Catholic clergy did nothing effective.
Nevertheless, the invention of the printing press has laid the foundation for the modern era and universal social literacy, and so it has with time "technologically, literacy has moved from the hands of the elite to society in general." Historical factors and socio-political conditions, however, universal social literacy has taken place. "
1868-1986
In 1871 only about half of Canadian French men in Canada reported themselves that they were literate, while 90 percent of other Canadian men said they could read and write, but information from a sample of the Canadian Family Project from the 1901 Canadian Census showed that literacy rates for Canadian French and other Canadians increased, as measured by the ability of men between the ages of 16 and 65 to answer literacy questions. The mandatory attendance at school was enacted at the end of the 19th century in all the provinces but Quebec, but at that time, a change in parental attitudes toward the education of a new generation meant that many children had attended regularly. In contrast to the school's promoter's emphasis on character formation, the establishment of values, the cultivation of political and social attitudes, and appropriate behavior, many parents support the school because they want their children to learn to read, write, and do arithmetic. Efforts are made to use power and religion, morals, economic/professional, and social/cultural influences on children learning to read by dictating the content of their school readers accordingly. But educators split from this sphere of influence and also taught literature from a more child-centered perspective: for his pleasure.
The educational change at QuÃÆ' Â © bec began as a result of a large commission of inquiry at the beginning of what came to be called the "Quiet Revolution" in the early 1960s. In response to the resulting recommendations, the QuÃÆ' Â © bec government changed the school system in an effort to improve the general education level of the francophone population and to produce better quality workforce. The leadership of the Catholic Church is denied for the sake of government administration and the greatly increased budget is given to school boards throughout the province.
With the passage of time, and by continuing the investigation into the level of literacy achievement of Canadians, the definition of literacy moves from the dichotomy (whether one can, or can not write his name, or literate or illiterate), to people who are considered multidimensionality, qualitative and quantitative aspects of literacy. In the 1970s, organizations such as the Canadian Association for Adult Education (CAAE) believe that one must complete the 8th grade to achieve functional literacy. A 1976 census examination, for example, found that 4,376,655, or 28.4% of Canadians aged 15 and over reported less than grade 9 and thus were not functionally literate. But in 1991, UNESCO officially recognized Canadian findings that assessments of educational attainment as a measure of literacy proxies are not as reliable as direct assessment. This dissatisfaction manifests itself in the development of actual ability tests that measure literacy more directly.
Systematic direct measurement of literacy in Canada, 1987 to present
Canada conducted its first literacy survey in 1987 which found that there are more than five million illiterate adults in Canada, or 24 percent of the adult population. Statistics Canada then conducted three national and international literacy surveys of the adult population - the first in 1989 was commissioned by the Human Resources and Development Skills department of Canada (HRSDC).
The first survey was called the "Literacy Skills Used in Everyday Activities" (LSUDA), and was modeled on a 1985 US survey of young adults (YALS). This is Canada's first attempt to produce skill steps that are considered comparable across languages. Literacy, for the first time, is measured in a series of skills. The survey found that 16% of Canadians had too limited literacy skills to handle most of the print material found in everyday life while 22% were considered "narrow readers".
In 1994-95, Canada participated in the first multi-lingual, multilingual assessment of adult literacy, the International Adult Literacy Survey (IALS). A stratified multi-stage probability sample design is used to select a sample from Census Frame. Samples are designed to produce separate samples for the two official languages ​​of Canada, the UK and France, and participants are measured on prose literacy dimensions, document literacy and quantitative literacy. The survey found that 42.2%, 43% and 42.2% of Canadians between the ages of 16 and 65 scored lowest on two levels of Prose Literacy, Literacy and Quantitative Literacy, respectively. This survey presents many important correlations, among which are the reasonable strong links between literacy and the economic potential of a country
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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